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Serotonin, tryptophan metabolism and the brain-gut-microbiome axis

12/31/2017

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​Something for 2018 ~ Gut instinct is bidirectional
 
Serotonin, tryptophan metabolism and the brain-gut-microbiome axis
Behavioural Brain Research
15 January 2015: Pages 32-48
S.M. O’Mahony, et al
 
The Abstract as Poem
(Or, A Microbiota Ode to the Brain-Gut Axis)
 
The brain-gut axis is
 a bidirectional communication system
 between the central nervous system
 and the gastrointestinal tract.
 
Serotonin functions as a key neurotransmitter
 at both terminals of this network.
 
Accumulating evidence points to a critical role
 for the gut microbiome
 in regulating normal functioning of this axis.
 
In particular,
 it is becoming clear
 that the microbial influence on tryptophan metabolism
 and the serotonergic system
 may be an important node in such regulation.
 
There is also substantial overlap
 between behaviours influenced by the gut microbiota
 and those which rely on intact serotonergic neurotransmission.
 
The developing serotonergic system may be vulnerable
 to differential microbial colonisation patterns
 prior to the emergence of a stable adult-like gut microbiota.
 
At the other extreme of life,
 the decreased diversity and stability of the gut microbiota
 may dictate serotonin-related health problems in the elderly.
 
The mechanisms underpinning this crosstalk
 require further elaboration
 but may be related to the ability of the gut microbiota
 to control host tryptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway,
 thereby simultaneously
 reducing the fraction available for serotonin synthesis
 and increasing the production of neuroactive metabolites.
 
The enzymes of this pathway are immune and stress-responsive,
 both systems which buttress the brain-gut axis.
 
In addition,
 there are neural processes in the gastrointestinal tract
 which can be influenced
 by local alterations in serotonin concentrations
 with subsequent relay of signals
 along the scaffolding of the brain-gut axis
 to influence CNS neurotransmission.
 
Therapeutic targeting
 of the gut microbiota
 might be a viable treatment strategy
 for serotonin-related brain-gut axis disorders.
 
Here’s to Buttressed Happy Guts in 2018!
 
*Next Up: 1 February 2018 and a 2020 Update.
 
Posted by Bryan W. Brickner
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Peppered Cannabinoids: Caryophyllene

12/30/2017

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​Pass the pepper please!


You might have experienced something like this: you eat a pepper and it makes you sweat.
 
If you haven’t had that experience, try a habanero pepper (just a little) to play along.
 
Sweating is dependent on our cannabinoid system (CS): for example, CB2 skin receptors modulate/maintain mammalian body temperature.
 
And it’s not just a reaction to the pepper: the pepper is modulating cannabinoid receptors – especially forehead ones for habanero-eaters – and it seems the hotter the pepper equals more CB2 response.
 
This happens because of the ubiquitous essential oil caryophyllene.
 
Here’s a sales site with caryophyllene and black pepper oil information.
 
And here’s a 2008 NIH article, Beta-caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid, which confirms the caryophyllene found in black pepper is “dietary” and states the oil is also found in such things as oregano, cinnamon and cannabis. 
 
Of course, a re-examination of the world spice trade is needed: looks like early cannabinoid trafficking now – who knew?
 
*Next Up: NYE 2017 and an abstract serotonin poem, A Microbiota Ode to the Brain-Gut Axis.
 
Posted by Bryan W. Brickner
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Homeostasis: If Not Cannabinoid Receptor Three, then Cannabinoid Receptor Third

6/7/2017

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PictureThe Cannabis Papers by Publius








​In The Cannabis Papers: A citizen’s guide to cannabinoids (2011), we noted evidence for a CB3 receptor in addition to CB1 and CB2. The research suggested that there was more happening (things to be accounted for, scientifically) and another receptor was proposed. In 2017 it looks like the best answer is a third category of activity and not a specific receptor; notably, this third activity involves many other kinds of receptors.
 
The Guide to Pharmacology website has an introduction page for cannabinoid receptors; at the bottom of the page there is a section on this third activity (non-CB1 and non-CB2 modulation). The site notes it is “generally accepted” that other receptor types, and thus other systems, are modulated by cannabinoids; this is true for endo, plant and pharmaceutical cannabinoids.
 
This third signaling effect connects progesterone and nuclear receptors to cannabinoids; it also suggests modulating endometriosis is similar to homeostasis: both depend on cannabinoids for healing and health.
 
*Next Up: Wednesday 21 June and a 2020: Virtual Representation and We the People.
 
Posted by Bryan W. Brickner

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Homeostasis: Cannabinoid, Progesterone and Nuclear Receptors

5/31/2017

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PictureNuclear Receptor In Action


​Think of a cell as a hub: a center of communication.
 
This hub has gates and points of entry: for our example, think of cannabinoid and progesterone receptors. These receptors facilitate communication with other hubs and inside a hub (with other cells and inside a cell).
 
There are nuclear receptors in all hubs/cells; these receptors regulate our genes (by transcribing DNA) and control our development, homeostasis and metabolism.
 
Recall that endometriosis is a disruption of a hub and its network: the cells grow (generate) as they are designed to do, just in the wrong spot.
 
An obvious point of disruption and research is the communication between progesterone and nuclear receptors; another is anandamide and all the other cannabinoids (endo, plant and pharmaceutical), as they too can modulate nuclear receptors.
 
We’ll begin with that homeostatic science next week: cannabinoids modulating nuclear receptors - and thus our every day.
 
*Next Up: Wednesday 7 June and a Homeostasis: If Not CB Three, then CB Third.
 
Posted by Bryan W. Brickner

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Homeostasis: Endometriosis, Progesterone and Cannabinoid Systems

5/24/2017

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PictureProgesterone






​Progesterone-dependent regulation of endometrial cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1-R) expression is disrupted in women with endometriosis and in isolated stromal cells exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)
 
The above title was published in Fertility and Sterility in 2012 and can be found on PubMed.
 
The research finds that endometriosis, where cells grow outside instead of inside the uterus (endometrium), is caused by a failure to communicate between progesterone and the cannabinoid system; this failure is painful and contributes to infertility. Summary quote from the research: “Our studies reveal a role for the anti-inflammatory actions of progesterone in regulating endometrial cannabinoid signaling, which is disrupted in women with endometriosis.”
 
How does that work though? What is disrupted? If communication between progesterone and the CB1 receptor is disrupted (as cells grow, just in the wrong place), how do cells normally communicate in a healthy, undisrupted homeostatic way?
 
The answer involves cannabinoid and progesterone nuclear receptor signaling: let’s just begin there next week.
 
*Next Up: 31 May and a homeostatic view of Progesterone Nuclear Receptors and Cannabinoid Systems.
 
Posted by Bryan W. Brickner

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Serotonin (5-HT) System, Obesity and Energy Homeostasis

8/13/2015

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PictureSerotonin Receptor (by S Janhichen)





We have a homeostatic serotonin update today from PubMed (June 2015) with the starring principal receptor, 5-HT2CR, in energy action:


Abstract
The central 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT; serotonin) system represents a fundamental component of the brain's control of energy homeostasis.

Medications targeting the 5-HT pathway have been at the forefront of obesity treatment for the past 15 years.

Pharmacological agents targeting 5-HT receptors (5-HTR), in combination with genetic models of 5-HTR manipulation, have uncovered a role for specific 5-HTRs in energy balance and reveal the 5-HT2 C R as the principal 5-HTR mediating this homeostatic process.

Capitalising on this neurophysiological machinery, 5-HT2 C R agonists improve obesity and glycaemic control in patient populations.

The underlying therapeutic mechanism has been probed using model systems and appears to be achieved primarily through 5-HT2 C R modulation of the brain melanocortin circuit via activation of pro-opiomelanocortin neurones signalling at melanocortin4 receptors.

Thus, 5-HT2 C R agonists offer a means to improve obesity and type 2 diabetes, which are conditions that now represent global challenges to human health.

5-hydroxytryptamine medications for the treatment of obesity.
Burke LK, Heisler LK.
J Neuroendocrinol. 2015 Jun;27(6):389-98. doi: 10.1111/jne.12287.
PMID: 25925636
Similar articles

Next Up: A Hannah Arendt Footnote on Tuesday 18 August.

Posted by Bryan W. Brickner

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Homeostasis: Publius’ Sleep Political Cannabinoid Science

9/29/2014

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PictureThe Cannabis Papers by Publius (2011)





The Cannabis Papers: A citizen’s guide to cannabinoids (2011)

By Publius


Sleep Edition

Today’s political cannabinoid science looks at five 2014 PubMed articles on how the cannabinoid system (CS) modulates homeostasis and sleep; of political note, there’s one on CS deficiency disguised as “cannabis withdrawal” (i.e., the pharmaceutical cannabinoid Nabilone). The line-up links to CS PubMed articles discussing: de-homeostatic sleep disturbances, REM transitions, aging with THC, the wake-inducing effects of CBD, and arousal sleep regulation.

Some (Sleepy) Shakespeare ~ Sonnet 27
   “Weary with toil, I haste to my bed,
   The dear repose for limbs with travel tired;
   But then begins a journey in my head,
   To work my mind when body’s work’s expired.”

I. De-Homeostasis (Sleep Disturbances) and CS Withdrawal
“Chronic cannabis use has been associated with the development of a withdrawal syndrome on abrupt discontinuation. Withdrawal symptoms typically begin within 24 h of abstinence and manifest as irritability, nervousness, sleep disturbances and decreased appetite. There is growing evidence that supports the use of plant-derived and synthetic cannabinoids for the treatment of cannabis withdrawal. In this case report, we present 20-year-old woman who developed protracted nausea and vomiting secondary to cannabis withdrawal and was successfully treated with nabilone. Nausea and vomiting is not listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-5 diagnostic criteria for cannabis withdrawal syndrome and is an uncommon symptom presentation.”
Nabilone therapy for cannabis withdrawal presenting as protracted nausea and vomiting.
Lam PW, Frost DW.
BMJ Case Rep. 2014 Sep 22;2014. pii: bcr2014205287. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2014-205287.
PMID: 25246463 [PubMed - in process]
Related citations

II. Homeostasis (Astrocytes and the Reticular Activating System) and the CS/CB1
“The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) is known as the cholinergic part of the reticular activating system (RAS) and it plays an important role in transitions of slow-wave sleep to REM sleep and wakefulness. … Taken together, we propose that cannabinoid receptor stimulation modulates PPN neuronal activity in the following manner: active neurons may elicit calcium waves in astrocytes via endogenous CB1 receptor agonists. Astrocytes in turn release glutamate that activates different metabotropic glutamate receptors of neurons and modulate PPN neuronal activity.”
Endocannabinoid signaling modulates neurons of the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) via astrocytes.
Kőszeghy A, Kovács A, Bíró T, Szücs P, Vincze J, Hegyi Z, Antal M, Pál B.
Brain Struct Funct. 2014 Jul 10. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 25009314 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Related citations

III. Homeostasis (Aging and the Effectiveness of THC) and the CS
“Overall, the pharmacodynamic effects of THC were smaller than effects previously reported in young adults. In conclusion, THC appeared to be safe and well tolerated by healthy older individuals. Data on safety and effectiveness of THC in frail older persons are urgently required, as this population could benefit from the therapeutic applications of THC.”
Safety and pharmacokinetics of oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy older subjects: A randomized controlled trial.
Ahmed AI, van den Elsen GA, Colbers A, van der Marck MA, Burger DM, Feuth TB, Rikkert MG, Kramers C.
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014 Jun 28. pii: S0924-977X(14)00175-8. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.06.007. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 25035121 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
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IV. Homeostasis (CBD as a Wake-Inducing Agent) and the CS
“Over the last decades, the scientific interest in chemistry and pharmacology of cannabinoids has increased. Most attention has focused on ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆(9)-THC) as it is the psychoactive constituent of Cannabis sativa (C. sativa). However, in previous years, the focus of interest in the second plant constituent with non-psychotropic properties, cannabidiol (CBD) has been enhanced. Recently, several groups have investigated the pharmacological properties of CBD with significant findings; furthermore, this compound has raised promising pharmacological properties as a wake-inducing drug. In the current review, we will provide experimental evidence regarding the potential role of CBD as a wake-inducing drug.”
Potential effects of cannabidiol as a wake-promoting agent.
Murillo-Rodríguez E, Sarro-Ramírez A, Sánchez D, Mijangos-Moreno S, Tejeda-Padrón A, Poot-Aké A, Guzmán K, Pacheco-Pantoja E, Arias-Carrión O.
Curr Neuropharmacol. 2014 May;12(3):269-72. doi: 10.2174/1570159X11666131204235805.
PMID: 24851090 [PubMed]
Related citations

V. Homeostasis (Arousal and Sleep) and the CS/CB1
"Cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptors are highly expressed in the brain and play a role in behavior control. ... The occurrence of multiple sleep alterations in KO [knock-out] indicates important roles of CB1 receptors in limiting arousal during the active period of the day, in sleep regulation, and in sleep EEG in mice."
Multiple sleep alterations in mice lacking cannabinoid type 1 receptors.
Silvani A, Berteotti C, Bastianini S, Lo Martire V, Mazza R, Pagotta U, Quarta C, Zoccoli G.
PLoS One. 2014 Feb 20;9(2):e89432. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089432.
eCollection2014.
PMID: 24586778 [PubMed - in process] Free PMC Article


Video: Density of Cannabinoid Receptors in the Brain and Human Body
~
Posted by Bryan W. Brickner


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Homeostasis: Equinox Serotonin (5HT) Headache Stories

9/20/2014

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PictureHomeostatic Life Light (2014)






The Cannabis Papers: A citizen’s guide to cannabinoids (2011)
By Publius

Headache Edition ~ Autumnal Equinox


Equinox and Homeostasis are mid-point extremes and today’s serotonin system science looks at 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine) and its role in modulating another extreme, the brain: specifically, headaches. Below are five (brief) science stories from the National Institutes of Health (PubMed). The serotonin brain tales include: pro-cognitive 5-HT4 receptors, mitigating medication overuse, abnormal headache chronicity, (red) wine interference mechanisms, and new cluster headache horizons.

Autumnal Equinox Health Everyone!

1. Serotonin 5-HT4 Receptors ~ Pro-Cognitive Hippocampal Effects
“Activation of serotonin 5-HT4 receptors has pro-cognitive effects on memory performance. … These results indicate that 5-HT4 receptors are not synthesized by cholinergic cells, and thus would be absent from cholinergic terminals. In contrast, several non-cholinergic cell populations within the basal forebrain and its target hippocampal and cortical areas express these receptors and are thus likely to mediate the enhancement of acetylcholine release elicited by 5-HT4 agonists.”
Serotonin 5-HT4 receptors and forebrain cholinergic system: receptor expression in identified cell populations.
Peñas-Cazorla R, Vilaró MT.
Brain Struct Funct. 2014 Sep 3. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 25183542 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Related citations

2. Serotonin Metabolism ~ Reversing Anxiety and Depression
“Medication overuse headache (MOH) affects between 1% and 2% of the general population but is present in up to 50% of patients seen in headache centers. … We conclude that headache frequency can be reduced to episodic headache in more than 50% of the patients by simple detoxification and information. Approximately half the patients will not have need for prophylactic medication after withdrawal. Pain perception is altered in patients with MOH but can be restored to a baseline pattern, indicating a reversible mechanism in the central sensitization leading to chronic pain. The great comorbidity with depression and anxiety could be a consequence of the altered serotonin metabolism indicating a reversible and potentially treatable condition.”
Medication overuse headache.
Munksgaard SB, Jensen RH.
Headache. 2014 Jul-Aug;54(7):1251-7. doi: 10.1111/head.12408. Epub 2014 Jul 2.
PMID: 24990298 [PubMed - in process]
Related citations

3. Serotonergic Homeostasis ~ Chronic Migraine and Tension-Type Headaches
“The primary aim of this study (TA-CH, Tryptophan Amine in Chronic Headache) was to investigate a possible role of tryptophan (TRP) metabolism in chronic migraine (CM) and chronic tension-type headache (CTTH). … Our results support the hypothesis that TRP metabolism is altered in CM and CTTH patients, leading to a reduction in plasma TRY. As TRY modulates the function of pain matrix serotonergic system, this may affect modulation of incoming nociceptive inputs from the trigeminal endings and posterior horns of the spinal cord. We suggest that these biochemical abnormalities play a role in the chronicity of CM and CTTH.”
Tryptamine levels are low in plasma of chronic migraine and chronic tension-type headache.
D'Andrea G, D'Amico D, Bussone G, Bolner A, Aguggia M, Saracco MG, Galloni E, De Riva V, D'Arrigo A, Colavito D, Leon A, Perini F.
Neurol Sci. 2014 Jul 14. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 25016960 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Related citations

4. Serotonin Metabolism / Migraines ~ Wine Interference Mechanisms
“Wine, and specifically red wine, is a migraine trigger. Non-migraineurs may have headache attacks with wine ingestion as well. The reasons for that triggering potential are uncertain, but the presence of phenolic flavonoid radicals and the potential for interfering with the central serotonin metabolism are probably the underlying mechanisms of the relationship between wine and headache. Further controlled studies are necessary to enlighten this traditional belief.”
Wine and headache.
Krymchantowski AV, da Cunha Jevoux C.
Headache. 2014 Jun;54(6):967-75. doi: 10.1111/head.12365. Epub 2014 May 6.
PMID: 24801068 [PubMed - in process]
Related citations

5. Serotonin Homeostasis ~ New Migraine and Cluster Headache Horizons
“Migraine and cluster headache are primary headache disorders commonly encountered in clinical practice. … This article will highlight several of the new treatments that are currently under investigation including novel delivery mechanisms of already existing medications, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) receptor antagonists, antibodies to CGRP and its receptor, serotonin receptor agonists, transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor modulators, orexin receptor antagonists, glial cell modulators, and neuromodulation.”
New treatments for headache.
Vollbracht S, Rapoport AM.
Neurol Sci. 2014 May;35 Suppl 1:89-97. doi: 10.1007/s10072-014-1747-z.
PMID: 24867844 [PubMed - in process]
Related citations

Serotonin Video: The Truth about Depression BBC Full Documentary 2013
~
Posted by Bryan W. Brickner

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Homeostasis: Publius’ (Ultralow) THC Political Cannabinoid Science

9/5/2014

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PictureThe Cannabis Papers by Publius






The Cannabis Papers: A citizen’s guide to cannabinoids (2011)
By Publius

Welcome Homeostasis!
Burning Man Edition

Today’s science roundup looks at four 2014 articles on how the cannabinoid system (CS) modulates our health through homeostasis. The line-up links to CS PubMed articles discussing: hippocampus inhibition and excitation, pain relief from a Chinese herb (thunder God vine), GABA pain dis-inhibition, and brain protection from a single ultralow dose of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

The annual Burning Man festival in Black Rock City (NV) was last week; participants test their CS by enduring two Black Rock extremes ~ art and nature ~ which create space for mind and body to catch a glimpse of … spirit.

I. Hippocampus Homeostasis (Inhibition and Excitation) and the CS (Endos)
“Endocannabinoids (eCBs) modulate both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in hippocampus via activation of pre-synaptic cannabinoid receptors. Here, we present a model for cannabinoid mediated short-term depression of excitation (DSE) based on our recently developed model for the equivalent phenomenon of suppressing inhibition (DSI). … Finally, we explore under which conditions the combination of DSI and DSE can temporarily shift the fine balance between excitation and inhibition. This highlights a mechanism by which eCBs might act in a neuro-protective manner during high neural activity.”
Cannabinoid-mediated short-term plasticity in hippocampus.
Zachariou M, Thul R.
J Comput Neurosci. 2014 Aug 16. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 25123173 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Related citations

II. Homeostasis (Pain Relief) and CS CB2 Signaling
“Celastrol, a major active ingredient of Chinese herb Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f. (thunder god vine), has exhibited a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammation, anti-cancer and immunosuppression. … Taken together, our results demonstrate the analgesia effects of celastrol through CB2 signaling and propose the potential of exploiting celastrol as a novel candidate for pain relief.”
Celastrol attenuates inflammatory and neuropathic pain mediated by cannabinoid receptor type 2.
Yang L, Li Y, Ren J, Zhu C, Fu J, Lin D, Qiu Y.
Int J Mol Sci. 2014 Aug 6;15(8):13637-48. doi: 10.3390/ijms150813637.
PMID: 25101848 [PubMed - in process] Free Article
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III. Homeostasis (GABA Pain Dis-inhibition) and the CS
“At the cellular level, opioids and cannabinoids are hypothesised to activate descending analgesia through an indirect process of 'GABA disinhibition'-suppression of inhibitory GABAergic inputs onto output neurons which constitute the descending analgesic pathway.”
Descending modulation of pain: the GABA disinhibition hypothesis of analgesia.
Lau BK, Vaughan CW.
Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2014 Jul 24;29C:159-164. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2014.07.010. [Epub ahead of print] Review.
PMID: 25064178 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Related citations

IV. Homeostasis (CS CNS Protection) from a Single Ultralow Dose of THC
“In our previous studies, we found that a single ultralow dose of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC; 0.002 mg/kg, three to four orders of magnitude lower than the conventional doses) protects the brain from different insults that cause cognitive deficits. … Our results suggest that an ultralow dose of THC that lacks any psychotrophic activity protects the brain from neuroinflammation-induced cognitive damage and might be used as an effective drug for the treatment of neuroinflammatory conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases.”
Ultralow doses of cannabinoid drugs protect the mouse brain from inflammation-induced cognitive damage.
Fishbein-Kaminietsky M, Gafni M, Sarne Y.
J Neurosci Res. 2014 Jul 16. doi: 10.1002/jnr.23452. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 25042014 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Related citations

Video: Cannabinoid Profiles - THC, THCA, THCV, CBD, CBG, CBN, CBC & Terpenes    

PictureOnce Upon A Time ...



Posted by Bryan W. Brickner






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Homeostasis: Publius’ Alcohol Political Cannabinoid Science

8/30/2014

3 Comments

 
PictureThe Cannabis Papers by Publius (2011)







The Cannabis Papers: A citizen’s guide to cannabinoids (2011)

By Publius

 
Today’s science roundup looks at four articles on how the cannabinoid system (CS) modulates our health through homeostasis ~ including one on the de-homeostatic (harmful) effects caused by chronic alcohol use on one’s CS. The line-up links to 2014 PubMed articles discussing: heteromerization, chronic alcohol harms, sensory information salience and stress response attenuation.

 
I. Heteromerization (GPR55 and CB2) and the CS
“In HEK293 cells expressing GPR55 and cannabinoid CB2 R receptors, heteromers that are unique signaling units are formed. The signaling by agonists of either receptor is governed i) by the presence or absence of the partner receptors (with the consequent formation of heteromers) and ii) by the activation state of the partner receptor.”
Heteromerization of GPR55 and cannabinoid CB2 receptors modulates signaling.
Balenga NA, Martínez-Pinilla E, Kargl J, Schröder R, Peinhaupt M, Platzer W, Bálint Z, Zamarbide M, Dopeso-Reyes I, Ricobaraza A, Pérez-Ortiz JM, Kostenis E, Waldhoer M, Heinemann A, Franco R.
Br J Pharmacol. 2014 Jul 22. doi: 10.1111/bph.12850. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 25048571 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Related citations

II. De-Homeostasis (Chronic Alcohol Use) and the CS
“Chronic use of alcohol is associated with structural and functional alterations in brain areas that subserve cognitive processes. Of particular importance is the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that is involved in higher order behaviors such as decision making, risk assessment and judgment. … Overall, these results suggest that ethanol's down-regulation of cannabinoid signaling results in altered network activity in the prefrontal cortex.”
Chronic ethanol alters network activity and endocannabinoid signaling in the prefrontal cortex.
Pava MJ, Woodward JJ.
Front Integr Neurosci. 2014 Jul 18;8:58. doi: 10.3389/fnint.2014.00058. eCollection 2014.
PMID: 25100953 [PubMed] Free Article
Related citations

III. Homeostasis (Sensory Information) and the CS
“Emerging evidence from both basic and clinical research demonstrates an important role for endocannabinoid (ECB) signaling in the processing of emotionally salient information, learning, and memory. Cannabinoid transmission within neural circuits involved in emotional processing has been shown to modulate the acquisition, recall, and extinction of emotionally salient memories and importantly, can strongly modulate the emotional salience of incoming sensory information.”
The role of cannabinoid transmission in emotional memory formation: implications for addiction and schizophrenia.
Tan H, Ahmad T, Loureiro M, Zunder J, Laviolette SR.
Front Psychiatry. 2014 Jun 30;5:73. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00073. eCollection 2014. Review.
PMID: 25071606 [PubMed] Free PMC Article
Related citations

IV. Homeostasis (Stress Response) and the CS
“Endocannabinoids are produced on demand and function to attenuate many of the physiological effects of the stress response. The endocannabinoid system is made up of cannabinoid receptors, the fatty acid signaling molecules that bind to and activate these receptors, and the enzymes that synthesize and catabolize these endocannabinoid signaling molecules.”
The endocannabinoid system modulates stress, emotionality, and inflammation.
Crowe MS, Nass SR, Gabella KM, Kinsey SG.
Brain Behav Immun. 2014 Jun 19. pii: S0889-1591(14)00172-X. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.06.007. [Epub ahead of print] Review.
PMID: 24953427 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
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Brain Video:
Why Do Some People Become Alcoholics?

Posted by Bryan W. Brickner


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    Brickner has a 1997 political science doctorate from Purdue University, cofounded Illinois NORML in 2001, and was a 2007 National NORML Cannabis Advocate Awardee. He is also publisher and coauthor of the 2011 book banned by the Illinois Department of Corrections – The Cannabis Papers: A Citizen’s Guide to Cannabinoids.

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